PORTS AND HARBOR ENGINEERING
Ports and Harbors: The Engineering Way
By Sandra Tabon, CE, BS, MS, MPH sanitary engineering/environmental health
References
Agerschou, H., et. Al. (1983). Planning and Design of Ports and Marine Terminals.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Quinn, A. (1972). Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures (2nd ed).
New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
Tsinker, G. (1997). Handbook of Port and Harbor Engineering. London: Chapman and
Hall.troduction
A port is a location where vessels can dock and transfer people, or load or unload cargo to and from the land. It can include the entire harbor which is a protected body of water which vessels can access from the sea or ocean.
Bays, lakes, lagoons, rivers, canals and estuaries with access to the sea, can naturally function as harbors. Inland water bodies can be locations for harbors. Such harbors can be classified as natural harbors. The ports developed with the natural harbors maybe called as inland ports. An inland port allows a ship to sail from the ocean inland to unload or load its cargoes.
A coast can be developed as a site for a harbor which is developed as a port which is provided with the protective breakwater. This can be classified as an artificial harbor.
When a harbor or a port is utilized for landing fish, the port is categorized as a fishing port that can be a recreational facility though most of these types of ports are usually commercialized. When the port is a place where passengers of cruise ships board to start a cruise and disembark at the end of the cruise, the port is considered as a cruise port. Ports that load and unload cargo or cargoes, are called cargo ports and are categorized as bulk port, break bulk port or container port as these ports handle only one cargo, handle many cargoes, and handle containerized cargo, respectively. The cruise ports and cargo ports are called seaports.
A ship can make an intermediate stop as it sails to its sailing itinerary. The port for this purpose is called a port of call.
In India, ports are either major ports or nonmajor ports depending upon the quantity of cargoes serviced by the port and harbors. In New Zealand, ports can be categorized into major ports, river ports and breakwater ports. Major ports got natural anchorages and require a little improvement. River ports are naturally protected as the river mouth gave natural shelter from sea currents, and waves. Improvement such as dredging can be done to develop the port. Knowledge of the river characteristic can be beneficial in any plan to improve the structure and hence increase the efficiency and safety in the port.
Ports vary in sizes. There are small ports. There are medium sized ports and there are large ports which can be either restricted or less restricted.
Harbors include entrance channels, interior channels, and support facilities for repairing or refuelling vessels.
Significance of Ports
Ports have the role in the moving of the products. They facilitate the trade and market exchanges. They reinforce the competitiveness in exports. They generate jobs as well. In ways, they provide service to the industrial sectors. Eventually they contribute to the economic growth.
Cargo navigation is considered to be an eco-friendly means of transportation. The transport of the hazardous materials though the marine transportation facilities which are catered by the ports and harbors, is considered to be less risky as the risk is lower than that of the other means of transportation. As the moved goods are monitored round the clock, there is the low rate of vandalism and theft on goods transferred though marine transportation system by the ports and harbors.
Regulations, Policies and Management Approaches on Port Planning, Design, Construction, Operation and Maintenance
Public Law 13-87 established the Jose D . Leon Guerrero Commercial Port as a public corporation that is mandated to provide the needs of ocean commerce, shipping, commercial and recreational boating, and navigation in the territory of Guam. It is an enabling act which provides the port to be self supporting. The Port Authority of Guam was established as a public corporation. Its duties include the development and maintenance of the port facilities as well as the control of the operators of the water terminal properties. The general manager of the Port Authority of Guam has the charge and the control over planning, organization staffing, direction and coordination of the Authority’s operation and business affairs. He is hired and employed at the pleasure of the board of directors who are nonsalaried members appointed by the Governor with the consent and the advice of the Guam Legislature.
The Nigerian Ports Authority aims to provide an efficient and professional port operation that meets the current and future needs of the customers. It utilizes a proactive and innovative management approach hence maximizes operational efficiencies and considers the real value for money.
In 1974, in the Philippines the Philippine Port Authority was created through the Presidential Decree 505 which gave it the general jurisdiction and control over all persons, corporations, firms or entities existing, proposed or otherwise to be established within the different port districts in the Philippines and shall supervise, regulate, and exercise its powers in accordance to the provisions of the decree. In the following year the port administration and operational functions were reorganized through the Presidential Decree 857 which integrated and coordinated the port planning, development, control and operations at the national level and promoted the growth of the regional port bodies which are responsive to the needs of the locality. For the use in the presidential decree, the port is defined as a place where ships may anchor or tie up for the purpose of repair, loading or discharge of cargo or for other activities connected with water-borne commerce, and including all the land and water areas and the structures, equipment and facilities related to these functions. Others terms were defined in the said presidential decree. In the said law, the word anchorage means a place with sufficient depth of water where vessels anchor or may ride at anchor within the harbor. The term dry dock was taken as a type of dock. A search on the subject dock led to a description of the word that it is a structure extended from the shore into the water body for boats to be moored. So the dry dock as the dock is that from which water can be temporarily excluded to effect repairs to hulls and keels of ships or vessels according to the aforementioned presidential decree. Navigable waters as defined within the provisions of the presidential decree meant all navigable portion of the seas, estuaries and inland waterways. The term basin means a naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed body of water in free communication with the sea.
The Philippine Ports Authority (PPA) allows private organization, partnership or corporation to file an application for clearance to develop a wharf, a pier or like port facility or structure of estimated cost of improvement at a particular barangay of a municipality submitting basic requirements that include unified application form specifying the exact location location of foreshore area, area size, intended purpose or use, type of structure to put up, and estimated cost of the development with summary of project scope, description and vicinity map as attachments. The private organization needed to indicate the foreshore lease contract number and TCT number of back up area as well as the ECC (Environmental Compliance Certificate) number. Having a clearance, the private company may obtain the permit to construct the improvement from the PPA. The same organization may apply in the PPA to operate the port improvement facilty thus constructed.
The following terms were defined in the PD 857 as found below.
"Authority" means the Philippine Ports Authority created by this Decree.
"Board" means the Board of Directors of the Authority appointed by the President under Section 7 of this Decree.
"Functions" includes powers and duties.
"Port District" means the territorial jurisdiction under the control, supervision or ownership of the Authority over an area (land or sea), declared as such in accordance with Section 5 of this Decree including but not limited to any Port within said District.
"Port" means a place where ships may anchor or tie up for the purpose of shelter, repair, loading or discharge of cargo, or for other such activities connected with water-borne commerce, and including all the land and water areas and the structures, equipment and facilities related to these functions.
"Navigable waters" means all navigable portions of the seas, estuaries, and inland waterways.
"Anchorage" means a place with sufficient depth of water where vessels anchor or may ride at anchor or may ride at anchor within the harbor.
"Terminal Facility" includes the seaport and its facilities of wharves, piers, slips, docks, dry docks, bulkheads, basins, warehouses, cold storage, and loading or unloading equipment.
"Basin" means a naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed body of water in free communication with the sea.
"Dock" includes locks, cuts, entrances, graving docks, inclined planes, slipways, quays, and other works and things appertaining to any dock.
"Drydock" means a dock from which the water can be temporarily excluded, in order to effect repairs to hulls and keels of ships or vessels.
"Pier" means any structure built into the sea but not parallel to the coast line and includes any stage, stair, landing place, landing stage, jetty, floating barge or pontoon, and any bridge or other works connected therewith.
"Warehouse" means a building or shed used for the storage of cargo.
"Transit Shed" means a building or shed which is situated at or near a quay, wharf or pier, and is used for the temporary or short-term storage of goods in transit, or to be shipped or discharge from a vessel.
"Wharf" means a continuous structure built parallel to along the margin of the sea or alongside riverbanks, canals or waterways where vessels may lie alongside to receive or discharge cargo, embark or disembark passengers, or lie at rest.
"Transportation Facility" includes rails and railcars, highways, wheeled vehicles, bridges, tunnels, tramways, subways, passenger or cargo vessels, ferry-boats, lighters, tugs, barges, scows, ramps, and any kind of facility in use or for use of the transportation, movement, or carriage of goods or passengers.
"Lighter" means a flat-bottomed boat or barge used in loading or unloading cargo to or from vessels,
"Vessel" includes any ship or boat, or any description of a vessel or boat.
"Goods" includes animals, carcasses, baggage, and any movable property of any kind.
"Dues" includes harbor fees, tonnage and wharfage dues, berthing charges, and port dues and any other dues or fees imposed by virtue of existing law or this Decree.
"Rates" means any rates or charges including any toll or rent under existing law or imposed by the Authority by virtue of this Decree for facilities used or services rendered.
Principles and Concepts
The pressure of the wind is given by the formula p = c v2 where c is a constant usually taken as 0.00256 and v is the velocity of the wind. When the velocity is in miles per hour, the p is in pounds per square foot. Conversion to metric system of the aforementioned units may involve the use of conversion factors for such equivalent values as 2.2 pounds as approximated for a kilogram, 5,280 feet taken as one mile, and 3.28 feet as considered nearly one meter.
For a low flat surface of a ship or a dock, the p is usually multiplied by the smaller value in the factor ranging from 1.3 to 1.6. When the wind is stronger than 24 kilometers per hour, a wind pressure of 24 kilograms per square meter is considered adequate. A design force of 97.8 kilograms per square meter is not usually put into effect to consider severe weather conditions such as hurricanes.
Deep-water waves have characteristic wave height, wave length and wave period. The distance between the crest and the trough of the wave is the wave height. Wave length is the measurement between two consecutive crest. The time for the wave to travel between two consecutive crests is the wave period.
A relationship between the wave length, velocity of wave propagation, and wave period was presented by Quinn (1972) from the basic equation of the velocity as being equal to the wave length divided by the time for the wave to travel along the wave length. Other equations put up by Quinn followed such as the following:
V = (gT)/(2π)
L = (gT2 )/(2π)
T = 2π V/g
Where V = velocity of wave propagation
L = wave length
T = wave period
g = acceleration of gravity
Two vertical walls namely the breakwater and sea wall are subjected to waves and winds. While the former is not subjected to breaking waves as the latter is, the former must be built high enough so as not to be overtopped by the attacking waves.
Subsurface conditions at locations of breakwaters and other marine structures include water content, specific gravity and void ratio. Water content (w) in percentage based on the weight of the solid is expressed as 100 multiplied by the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solid. Quinn (1972 ) described the voids ratio ( e ) as 1/100 of the water content times the specific gravity (G) of the solid material.
When the angle of internal friction of soil is zero, the cohesion (or cohesive or shearing strength) of soil (cohesive) is one half the unconfined compressive strength (unconfined compression test of which is similar to the standard test on concrete cylinder).
So that,
C = qu/2
where C = cohesion
qu = compressive strength at failure
A fender may be a system of wood or rubber provided at the dock to prevent the ship or dock from being damaged due to movement caused the winds and waves while the ship is mooring. Assuming that the ship hits the dock, the fender ( installed on the dock) is to absorb an energy which equals one half of E (as the other half is assumed to be absorbed by the water and the ship).
Where E = ½ (W/g) v2 , W is the displaced weight of ship and v is the velocity of the ship normal to the dock.
By Sandra Tabon, CE, BS, MS, MPH sanitary engineering/environmental health
References
Agerschou, H., et. Al. (1983). Planning and Design of Ports and Marine Terminals.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Quinn, A. (1972). Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures (2nd ed).
New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
Tsinker, G. (1997). Handbook of Port and Harbor Engineering. London: Chapman and
Hall.troduction
A port is a location where vessels can dock and transfer people, or load or unload cargo to and from the land. It can include the entire harbor which is a protected body of water which vessels can access from the sea or ocean.
Bays, lakes, lagoons, rivers, canals and estuaries with access to the sea, can naturally function as harbors. Inland water bodies can be locations for harbors. Such harbors can be classified as natural harbors. The ports developed with the natural harbors maybe called as inland ports. An inland port allows a ship to sail from the ocean inland to unload or load its cargoes.
A coast can be developed as a site for a harbor which is developed as a port which is provided with the protective breakwater. This can be classified as an artificial harbor.
When a harbor or a port is utilized for landing fish, the port is categorized as a fishing port that can be a recreational facility though most of these types of ports are usually commercialized. When the port is a place where passengers of cruise ships board to start a cruise and disembark at the end of the cruise, the port is considered as a cruise port. Ports that load and unload cargo or cargoes, are called cargo ports and are categorized as bulk port, break bulk port or container port as these ports handle only one cargo, handle many cargoes, and handle containerized cargo, respectively. The cruise ports and cargo ports are called seaports.
A ship can make an intermediate stop as it sails to its sailing itinerary. The port for this purpose is called a port of call.
In India, ports are either major ports or nonmajor ports depending upon the quantity of cargoes serviced by the port and harbors. In New Zealand, ports can be categorized into major ports, river ports and breakwater ports. Major ports got natural anchorages and require a little improvement. River ports are naturally protected as the river mouth gave natural shelter from sea currents, and waves. Improvement such as dredging can be done to develop the port. Knowledge of the river characteristic can be beneficial in any plan to improve the structure and hence increase the efficiency and safety in the port.
Ports vary in sizes. There are small ports. There are medium sized ports and there are large ports which can be either restricted or less restricted.
Harbors include entrance channels, interior channels, and support facilities for repairing or refuelling vessels.
Significance of Ports
Ports have the role in the moving of the products. They facilitate the trade and market exchanges. They reinforce the competitiveness in exports. They generate jobs as well. In ways, they provide service to the industrial sectors. Eventually they contribute to the economic growth.
Cargo navigation is considered to be an eco-friendly means of transportation. The transport of the hazardous materials though the marine transportation facilities which are catered by the ports and harbors, is considered to be less risky as the risk is lower than that of the other means of transportation. As the moved goods are monitored round the clock, there is the low rate of vandalism and theft on goods transferred though marine transportation system by the ports and harbors.
Regulations, Policies and Management Approaches on Port Planning, Design, Construction, Operation and Maintenance
Public Law 13-87 established the Jose D . Leon Guerrero Commercial Port as a public corporation that is mandated to provide the needs of ocean commerce, shipping, commercial and recreational boating, and navigation in the territory of Guam. It is an enabling act which provides the port to be self supporting. The Port Authority of Guam was established as a public corporation. Its duties include the development and maintenance of the port facilities as well as the control of the operators of the water terminal properties. The general manager of the Port Authority of Guam has the charge and the control over planning, organization staffing, direction and coordination of the Authority’s operation and business affairs. He is hired and employed at the pleasure of the board of directors who are nonsalaried members appointed by the Governor with the consent and the advice of the Guam Legislature.
The Nigerian Ports Authority aims to provide an efficient and professional port operation that meets the current and future needs of the customers. It utilizes a proactive and innovative management approach hence maximizes operational efficiencies and considers the real value for money.
In 1974, in the Philippines the Philippine Port Authority was created through the Presidential Decree 505 which gave it the general jurisdiction and control over all persons, corporations, firms or entities existing, proposed or otherwise to be established within the different port districts in the Philippines and shall supervise, regulate, and exercise its powers in accordance to the provisions of the decree. In the following year the port administration and operational functions were reorganized through the Presidential Decree 857 which integrated and coordinated the port planning, development, control and operations at the national level and promoted the growth of the regional port bodies which are responsive to the needs of the locality. For the use in the presidential decree, the port is defined as a place where ships may anchor or tie up for the purpose of repair, loading or discharge of cargo or for other activities connected with water-borne commerce, and including all the land and water areas and the structures, equipment and facilities related to these functions. Others terms were defined in the said presidential decree. In the said law, the word anchorage means a place with sufficient depth of water where vessels anchor or may ride at anchor within the harbor. The term dry dock was taken as a type of dock. A search on the subject dock led to a description of the word that it is a structure extended from the shore into the water body for boats to be moored. So the dry dock as the dock is that from which water can be temporarily excluded to effect repairs to hulls and keels of ships or vessels according to the aforementioned presidential decree. Navigable waters as defined within the provisions of the presidential decree meant all navigable portion of the seas, estuaries and inland waterways. The term basin means a naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed body of water in free communication with the sea.
The Philippine Ports Authority (PPA) allows private organization, partnership or corporation to file an application for clearance to develop a wharf, a pier or like port facility or structure of estimated cost of improvement at a particular barangay of a municipality submitting basic requirements that include unified application form specifying the exact location location of foreshore area, area size, intended purpose or use, type of structure to put up, and estimated cost of the development with summary of project scope, description and vicinity map as attachments. The private organization needed to indicate the foreshore lease contract number and TCT number of back up area as well as the ECC (Environmental Compliance Certificate) number. Having a clearance, the private company may obtain the permit to construct the improvement from the PPA. The same organization may apply in the PPA to operate the port improvement facilty thus constructed.
The following terms were defined in the PD 857 as found below.
"Authority" means the Philippine Ports Authority created by this Decree.
"Board" means the Board of Directors of the Authority appointed by the President under Section 7 of this Decree.
"Functions" includes powers and duties.
"Port District" means the territorial jurisdiction under the control, supervision or ownership of the Authority over an area (land or sea), declared as such in accordance with Section 5 of this Decree including but not limited to any Port within said District.
"Port" means a place where ships may anchor or tie up for the purpose of shelter, repair, loading or discharge of cargo, or for other such activities connected with water-borne commerce, and including all the land and water areas and the structures, equipment and facilities related to these functions.
"Navigable waters" means all navigable portions of the seas, estuaries, and inland waterways.
"Anchorage" means a place with sufficient depth of water where vessels anchor or may ride at anchor or may ride at anchor within the harbor.
"Terminal Facility" includes the seaport and its facilities of wharves, piers, slips, docks, dry docks, bulkheads, basins, warehouses, cold storage, and loading or unloading equipment.
"Basin" means a naturally or artificially enclosed or nearly enclosed body of water in free communication with the sea.
"Dock" includes locks, cuts, entrances, graving docks, inclined planes, slipways, quays, and other works and things appertaining to any dock.
"Drydock" means a dock from which the water can be temporarily excluded, in order to effect repairs to hulls and keels of ships or vessels.
"Pier" means any structure built into the sea but not parallel to the coast line and includes any stage, stair, landing place, landing stage, jetty, floating barge or pontoon, and any bridge or other works connected therewith.
"Warehouse" means a building or shed used for the storage of cargo.
"Transit Shed" means a building or shed which is situated at or near a quay, wharf or pier, and is used for the temporary or short-term storage of goods in transit, or to be shipped or discharge from a vessel.
"Wharf" means a continuous structure built parallel to along the margin of the sea or alongside riverbanks, canals or waterways where vessels may lie alongside to receive or discharge cargo, embark or disembark passengers, or lie at rest.
"Transportation Facility" includes rails and railcars, highways, wheeled vehicles, bridges, tunnels, tramways, subways, passenger or cargo vessels, ferry-boats, lighters, tugs, barges, scows, ramps, and any kind of facility in use or for use of the transportation, movement, or carriage of goods or passengers.
"Lighter" means a flat-bottomed boat or barge used in loading or unloading cargo to or from vessels,
"Vessel" includes any ship or boat, or any description of a vessel or boat.
"Goods" includes animals, carcasses, baggage, and any movable property of any kind.
"Dues" includes harbor fees, tonnage and wharfage dues, berthing charges, and port dues and any other dues or fees imposed by virtue of existing law or this Decree.
"Rates" means any rates or charges including any toll or rent under existing law or imposed by the Authority by virtue of this Decree for facilities used or services rendered.
Principles and Concepts
The pressure of the wind is given by the formula p = c v2 where c is a constant usually taken as 0.00256 and v is the velocity of the wind. When the velocity is in miles per hour, the p is in pounds per square foot. Conversion to metric system of the aforementioned units may involve the use of conversion factors for such equivalent values as 2.2 pounds as approximated for a kilogram, 5,280 feet taken as one mile, and 3.28 feet as considered nearly one meter.
For a low flat surface of a ship or a dock, the p is usually multiplied by the smaller value in the factor ranging from 1.3 to 1.6. When the wind is stronger than 24 kilometers per hour, a wind pressure of 24 kilograms per square meter is considered adequate. A design force of 97.8 kilograms per square meter is not usually put into effect to consider severe weather conditions such as hurricanes.
Deep-water waves have characteristic wave height, wave length and wave period. The distance between the crest and the trough of the wave is the wave height. Wave length is the measurement between two consecutive crest. The time for the wave to travel between two consecutive crests is the wave period.
A relationship between the wave length, velocity of wave propagation, and wave period was presented by Quinn (1972) from the basic equation of the velocity as being equal to the wave length divided by the time for the wave to travel along the wave length. Other equations put up by Quinn followed such as the following:
V = (gT)/(2π)
L = (gT2 )/(2π)
T = 2π V/g
Where V = velocity of wave propagation
L = wave length
T = wave period
g = acceleration of gravity
Two vertical walls namely the breakwater and sea wall are subjected to waves and winds. While the former is not subjected to breaking waves as the latter is, the former must be built high enough so as not to be overtopped by the attacking waves.
Subsurface conditions at locations of breakwaters and other marine structures include water content, specific gravity and void ratio. Water content (w) in percentage based on the weight of the solid is expressed as 100 multiplied by the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solid. Quinn (1972 ) described the voids ratio ( e ) as 1/100 of the water content times the specific gravity (G) of the solid material.
When the angle of internal friction of soil is zero, the cohesion (or cohesive or shearing strength) of soil (cohesive) is one half the unconfined compressive strength (unconfined compression test of which is similar to the standard test on concrete cylinder).
So that,
C = qu/2
where C = cohesion
qu = compressive strength at failure
A fender may be a system of wood or rubber provided at the dock to prevent the ship or dock from being damaged due to movement caused the winds and waves while the ship is mooring. Assuming that the ship hits the dock, the fender ( installed on the dock) is to absorb an energy which equals one half of E (as the other half is assumed to be absorbed by the water and the ship).
Where E = ½ (W/g) v2 , W is the displaced weight of ship and v is the velocity of the ship normal to the dock.
Ports and Harbor Planning
by. S Tabon
The design of a port can be undertaken with the use of an operational framework .
It would be necessary to obtain site information. A site investigation is to be conducted. This consists of a topographic survey of the land for the terminal, a soil investigation by probings on water and borings and or test pits on land, hydrographic survey of the channel area, observations of the tide and current, and obtaining information on the wind, and waves. It would be necessary to obtain information about the earthquake trend in the area, the availability and cost of the materials and labor for construction as well as building codes, and laws and regulations on port and harbor projects, planning, construction, maintenance and operations.
Both the hydrographic and the topographic surveys are needing a single control line which is a series of lines with bearings and distances with intersection which can be monumented for use during construction.
The hydrographic survey is made to determine the depths of the water body over the area larger than that of the proposed harbor and channels. It is done to locate also the shoreline at low and high water surface as well as obstructions and structures in the water and in the shore. Soundings can be made at about 7.622 meter interval along lines spaced 15.244 meters to 30.488 meters on centers and referred to from low water datum. The time and day the soundings were made are recorded as the water depth during the sounding is referred to the level of the water surface. If dredging is needed, another sounding can be made after the dredging. The hydrographic map that will show the elevations of the bottom of the sea may be done to represent 200 feet (60.976 meters) of the actual area by 1 inch (0.0254 meters) in the drawing which means a scale of 1:2000 can be used.
The topographic survey is to be conducted to determine the contour of the land where the terminals are to be built. Contours of about 0.610 meter to 1.524 meter interval. Elevations at 7.622 meter centers at both direction can be desirable. Abrupt changes in the contour of the ground warrants the determination of the vertical height. The topographic map that is made from the data is to show the contours of the site, the location of test pits and borings, prominent landmarks, structures and buildings. The topographic map can done on a scale of 1:1000 which means that 0.0254 meters in the map represents 30.488 metersin the actual site.
Borings or probings are to be made at strategic points in the site for the harbor and the channels to characterize the location of breakwaters, wharves, piers and other structures in the harbor. Borings should be made along a definite line like the center line. For structures of considerable width, two or more lines can be considered. The borings usually is made at 30.488 meters center to center. Having a 12.20 meter penetration into the firm material for an adequate support, is to be taken into consideration in the boring.
Dry sample wash borings should be made. Where the soil is plastic, undisturbed soil sample borings and soil test will be desirable. When there is appreciable load added to the underlying plastic soil, soil test maybe made on undisturbed sample to determine the shearing strength and consolidation coefficient of the soil.
On the seabed that is to be subjected to dredging, borings are to be made 76.22 meters to 152.44 meter center to center. The depth of the boring should be 0.610 meters below the dredged bottom. If a rock is encountered along the level the depth of the boring should be 1.524 meters.
Sieve analysis and sedimentation test will have to be performed in the laboratory. The soil sample should be classified. A gradation curve is to be drawn. A soil profile is to be diagrammed. The triangular soil classification chart can be used to classify the soil.
Tests for the determination of the water content, specific gravity and voids ratio are to be done. If the shearing resistance of the soil is dependent upon the friction and cohesion, the triaxial shear test should be done.
The information about the general direction and velocity of the currents in the area are to be obtained. The mean high tide and the mean low tide are to be determined and the datum for referencing the water level is to be established during sounding. The wave and the wind are to be observed. The wave height should be observed. The directions of the incoming waves and winds are to be observed also. The time between the successive wave peak is to be observed.
In locations where tidal information is not available, it is necessary to install a tide gauge to determine the mean high- and mean low-water levels.
In proposing a design for a port and harbour, it is recommended that a hydraulic model of the proposed port and harbour must be tested in an investigation or study so as to put the design on a sound engineering basis. The hydraulic model maybe constructed of concrete in a wave basin using a linear scale of model to prototype. The model is to be designed and operated in accordance to acceptable model laws. The purpose of the model is to investigate the adequacy of the proposed design to protect the docking area and to make revision at minimum cost when the design is found to be inadequate.
In the design of the port, the following factors are to be taken into consideration: layout of the port; marine environment; geometry, depth, and configuration of exterior navigation channels such as fairway, approach channel, entrance channel, interior basins, turning basins, berths; local environmental conditions; and size and number of ships calling at port.
References
Agerschou, H., et. Al. (1983). Planning and Design of Ports and Marine Terminals.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Quinn, A. (1972). Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures (2nd ed).
New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
Tsinker, G. (1997). Handbook of Port and Harbor Engineering. London: Chapman and
Hall.
by. S Tabon
The design of a port can be undertaken with the use of an operational framework .
It would be necessary to obtain site information. A site investigation is to be conducted. This consists of a topographic survey of the land for the terminal, a soil investigation by probings on water and borings and or test pits on land, hydrographic survey of the channel area, observations of the tide and current, and obtaining information on the wind, and waves. It would be necessary to obtain information about the earthquake trend in the area, the availability and cost of the materials and labor for construction as well as building codes, and laws and regulations on port and harbor projects, planning, construction, maintenance and operations.
Both the hydrographic and the topographic surveys are needing a single control line which is a series of lines with bearings and distances with intersection which can be monumented for use during construction.
The hydrographic survey is made to determine the depths of the water body over the area larger than that of the proposed harbor and channels. It is done to locate also the shoreline at low and high water surface as well as obstructions and structures in the water and in the shore. Soundings can be made at about 7.622 meter interval along lines spaced 15.244 meters to 30.488 meters on centers and referred to from low water datum. The time and day the soundings were made are recorded as the water depth during the sounding is referred to the level of the water surface. If dredging is needed, another sounding can be made after the dredging. The hydrographic map that will show the elevations of the bottom of the sea may be done to represent 200 feet (60.976 meters) of the actual area by 1 inch (0.0254 meters) in the drawing which means a scale of 1:2000 can be used.
The topographic survey is to be conducted to determine the contour of the land where the terminals are to be built. Contours of about 0.610 meter to 1.524 meter interval. Elevations at 7.622 meter centers at both direction can be desirable. Abrupt changes in the contour of the ground warrants the determination of the vertical height. The topographic map that is made from the data is to show the contours of the site, the location of test pits and borings, prominent landmarks, structures and buildings. The topographic map can done on a scale of 1:1000 which means that 0.0254 meters in the map represents 30.488 metersin the actual site.
Borings or probings are to be made at strategic points in the site for the harbor and the channels to characterize the location of breakwaters, wharves, piers and other structures in the harbor. Borings should be made along a definite line like the center line. For structures of considerable width, two or more lines can be considered. The borings usually is made at 30.488 meters center to center. Having a 12.20 meter penetration into the firm material for an adequate support, is to be taken into consideration in the boring.
Dry sample wash borings should be made. Where the soil is plastic, undisturbed soil sample borings and soil test will be desirable. When there is appreciable load added to the underlying plastic soil, soil test maybe made on undisturbed sample to determine the shearing strength and consolidation coefficient of the soil.
On the seabed that is to be subjected to dredging, borings are to be made 76.22 meters to 152.44 meter center to center. The depth of the boring should be 0.610 meters below the dredged bottom. If a rock is encountered along the level the depth of the boring should be 1.524 meters.
Sieve analysis and sedimentation test will have to be performed in the laboratory. The soil sample should be classified. A gradation curve is to be drawn. A soil profile is to be diagrammed. The triangular soil classification chart can be used to classify the soil.
Tests for the determination of the water content, specific gravity and voids ratio are to be done. If the shearing resistance of the soil is dependent upon the friction and cohesion, the triaxial shear test should be done.
The information about the general direction and velocity of the currents in the area are to be obtained. The mean high tide and the mean low tide are to be determined and the datum for referencing the water level is to be established during sounding. The wave and the wind are to be observed. The wave height should be observed. The directions of the incoming waves and winds are to be observed also. The time between the successive wave peak is to be observed.
In locations where tidal information is not available, it is necessary to install a tide gauge to determine the mean high- and mean low-water levels.
In proposing a design for a port and harbour, it is recommended that a hydraulic model of the proposed port and harbour must be tested in an investigation or study so as to put the design on a sound engineering basis. The hydraulic model maybe constructed of concrete in a wave basin using a linear scale of model to prototype. The model is to be designed and operated in accordance to acceptable model laws. The purpose of the model is to investigate the adequacy of the proposed design to protect the docking area and to make revision at minimum cost when the design is found to be inadequate.
In the design of the port, the following factors are to be taken into consideration: layout of the port; marine environment; geometry, depth, and configuration of exterior navigation channels such as fairway, approach channel, entrance channel, interior basins, turning basins, berths; local environmental conditions; and size and number of ships calling at port.
References
Agerschou, H., et. Al. (1983). Planning and Design of Ports and Marine Terminals.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Quinn, A. (1972). Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures (2nd ed).
New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
Tsinker, G. (1997). Handbook of Port and Harbor Engineering. London: Chapman and
Hall.